Everything about Lucius Cornelius Sulla totally explained
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (
Latin:
L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX) (c.
138 BC –
78 BC), usually known simply as
Sulla, was a Roman
general and a
conservative politician, holding the office of
consul twice as well as the
dictatorship.
A gifted and effective general, Sulla marched his armies on Rome twice, enjoying the absolute power of a dictator. Though he resigned his complete command of the Republic, he's often seen as having hastened the end of the Republic by his example.
His character was once described as being half fox and half lion, due to his perceived cunning and bravery;
Machiavelli would later allude to this description of Sulla in outlining the most desirable characteristics of a prince.
Sulla was described by ancient sources as having golden-reddish hair and piercing gray eyes that could intimidate all but the sternest.
Life
Early years
Sulla was born into a branch of the
patrician Cornelii gens, but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at the time of his birth. Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth amongst Rome’s low-lifes—comics, actors, lute-players and dancers—at which time he met the Roman actor
Metrobius, whom
Plutarch describes as a female impersonator. Sulla remained romantically attached to him throughout his life, and even when both were quite old, he never attempted to conceal this sentimental attachment.
Despite his early waywardness, it seems certain that Sulla received a good education. He was fluent in Greek, a sure sign in Rome of an educated man, and
Sallust declares him well-read and intelligent. The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics, the
Cursus honorum, are not clear, although Plutarch refers to two inheritances; one from his stepmother and the other from a low-born but rich unmarried lady.
Africa and the capture of Jugurtha
In 107 BC, Sulla was nominated
quaestor to
Gaius Marius, who had been elected
consul for that year. Marius was taking control of the Roman army in the war against King
Jugurtha of
Numidia in northern Africa
The
Jugurthine War had started earlier in 112 BC, but Roman legions under
Quintus Caecilius Metellus had been taking what was seen as an excessive amount of time. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant and client of Metellus, saw an opportunity to usurp his commander and fed rumors of incompetence and delay to the publicanii (merchants) in the region. These machinations caused calls for Metellus's removal; despite delaying tactics by Metellus, Marius returned to Rome to stand for the consulship and took over the campaign.
Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus and ultimately defeated the Numidians in 106 BC, thanks in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. He had persuaded King
Bocchus of
Mauretania, a nearby kingdom, to betray Jugurtha, who had fled to Mauretania for refuge. It was a dangerous operation from the first, with King Bocchus weighing up the advantages of handing Jugurtha over to Sulla or Sulla over to Jugurtha. The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Much to the annoyance of Marius, a gilded equestrian statue of Sulla donated by King Bocchus was erected in the Forum to commemorate his accomplishment.
Cimbri and the Teutones
The next threat to Rome proved to be much more serious. In 104 BC the migrating Germanic tribes of the
Cimbri and the
Teutones seemed headed for Italy. Sulla continued to serve on Marius' staff during this campaign. Due to the immediate threat facing the city, Marius was elected Consul an unprecedented five years in a row. Finally, with his consular colleague Catulus, the Roman forces faced the tribes at the
battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. Sulla had by this time transferred to the army of
Quintus Lutatius Catulus. Sulla is credited as being the prime mover in the defeat of the tribes (Catulus being a hopeless general and quite incapable of cooperating with Marius). Marius and Catulus were both granted
triumphs as the co-commanding generals.
Praetorship and Cilician governorship
Returning to Rome, Sulla was elected '
Praetor urbanus' in 97 BC. According to rumour, this was done through massive
bribery of epic proportions. The next year he was appointed
pro consule to the province of
Cilicia (in
Anatolia). While in the East, Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a
Parthian ambassador,
Orobazus, and by taking the seat between the Parthian ambassador and the ambassador from
Pontus (the center seat being the place of honour), he sealed, perhaps unintentionally, the Parthian ambassador's fate. Orobazus was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing Sulla to outmanoeuver him. It was at this meeting he was told by a
Chaldean seer that he'd die at the height of his fame and fortune. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his lifetime. Later around 93 BC Sulla left the East and returned to Rome, where he aligned himself with the
Optimates in opposition to Gaius Marius. In 92 BC Sulla repulsed
Tigranes the Great of
Armenia from
Cappadocia.
Social War
The
Social War (91–88 BC) was fought against the
Socii, Rome's Italian allies, and resulted from Rome's intransigence in regarding the civil liberties of its own citizens (Romans) as superior to those of citizens of the rest of Italy. Subjects of the Roman Republic, these Italian provincials might be called to arms in its defence or might be subjected to extraordinary taxes, but they'd no say in the expenditure of these taxes or in the uses of the armies that might be raised in their territories. The Social War was, in part, caused by the assassination of
Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger. His reforms were intended to grant Roman Citizenship to their allies, which would have given these "provincials" (a provincial Roman) a say in the external and internal policies of the
Roman Republic. When Drusus was assassinated, most of his reforms addressing these grievances were declared invalid. This greatly angered the Roman provincials, and in consequence, most allied against Rome.
At the beginning of the Social War, the Roman aristocracy and Senate were beginning to fear
Gaius Marius's ambition, which had already given him 5 consulships in a row, from 104 BC to 100 BC. They were determined that he shouldn't have overall command of the war in Italy. In this last rebellion of the Italian allies, Sulla served with brilliance as a general. He outshone both Marius and the consul
Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (the father of
Pompey Magnus). For example, in 89 BC Sulla captured
Aeclanum, the chief town of
Hirpini, by setting the wooden breastwork on fire. As a result of his success in bringing the Social War to a successful conclusion, he was elected
consul for the first time in 88 BC, with
Quintus Pompeius Rufus (soon his daughter's father-in-law) as his colleague.
Grass Crown
Sulla served not only with brilliance as a general during the Social War, but also with immense personal bravery. At
Nola he was awarded a
Corona Obsidionalis ("Obsidional or Blockade Crown"), also known as a
Corona Gaminea ("
Grass Crown"), the highest Roman military honour, awarded for personal bravery to a commanding general that saves a Roman legion or army in the field. Unlike all other Roman military honors, it was awarded by acclamation of the soldiers of the rescued army, and consequently very few were ever awarded. The crown, by tradition, was woven from grasses and other plants taken from the actual battlefield.
Consul and first march on Rome
As the consul of Rome, Sulla prepared to depart once more for the East, to fight the
first Mithridatic War, by the appointment of the Senate. But he'd leave trouble behind him. Marius was now an old man, but he still had the ambition to lead the Roman armies against King
Mithridates VI of Pontus. Marius convinced the
tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus to call an
assembly and revert the Senate's decision on Sulla's command. Sulpicius also used the assemblies to eject Senators from the
Roman Senate until there were not enough senators to form a
quorum. Violence in the Forum ensued, and the efforts of the nobles to effect a public lynching similar to that which had happened to the brothers
Gracchi and
Saturninus were smashed by the
gladitatorial bodyguard of Sulpicius. Sulla was forced to take refuge in Marius's house, and possibly made a personal plea to stop the violence, which was ignored. Sulla's own son-in-law was killed in those riots.
Sulla fled Rome and went to the camp of his victorious Social War veterans, waiting to cross to Greece from the south of Italy. He announced the measures that had been taken against him, and his soldiers stoned the envoys of the assemblies who came to announce that the command of the Mithridatic War had been transferred to Marius. Sulla then took six of his most loyal
legions and marched on Rome. This was an unprecedented event. No general before him had ever crossed the city limits, the
pomoerium, with his army. It was so unethical that most of his commanders (with the exception of one,
Lucullus) refused to accompany him. Sulla justified his actions on the grounds that the Senate had been neutered and the
mos maiorum ("The way of the predecessors", which amounted to a Roman constitution though none of it was codified as such) had been offended by the Senate's negation of the rights of the year's consuls to fight the year's wars. Armed gladiators were unable to resist organized Roman soldiers; and although Marius offered freedom to any slave that would fight with him against Sulla, he and his followers were forced to flee the city.
Sulla consolidated his position, declared Marius and his allies
hostes (enemies of the state), and addressed the Senate in harsh tones, portraying himself as a victim, presumably to justify his violent entrance into the city. After restructuring the city's politics and strengthening the Senate's power, Sulla returned to his camp and proceeded with the original plan of fighting Mithridates in
Pontus.
Sulpicius was betrayed and killed by one of his slaves, whom Sulla subsequently freed and then executed. Marius, however, fled to safety in Africa. With Sulla out of Rome, Marius plotted his return. During his period of exile Marius became determined that he'd hold a seventh consulship, as foretold by the Sybil decades earlier. By the end of 87 BC Marius returned to Rome with the support of
Lucius Cornelius Cinna and, in Sulla's absence, took control of the city. Marius declared Sulla's reforms and laws invalid and officially exiled Sulla. Marius and Cinna were elected consuls for the year 86 BC. Marius died a fortnight after, and Cinna was left in sole control of Rome.
First Mithridatic War and the siege of Athens
In the spring of 87 BC Sulla landed at Dyrrachium, Greece. Asia was occupied by the forces of
Mithridates under the command of
Archelaus. Sulla’s first target was
Athens, ruled by a Mithridatic puppet; the tyrant
Aristion. Sulla moved southeast, picking up supplies and reinforcements as he went. Sulla’s chief of staff was
Lucullus, who went ahead of him to scout the way and negotiate with
Bruttius Sura, the existing Roman commander in Greece. After speaking with Lucullus, Sura handed over the command of his troops to Sulla. At Chaeronea, ambassadors from all the major cities of Greece (except Athens) met with Sulla, who impressed on them the Rome's determination to drive Mithridates from Greece and Asia Province. Sulla then advanced on Athens.
On arrival, Sulla threw up a siege encompassing not only Athens but also the port of
Piraeus. At the time Archelaus had command of the sea, so Sulla sent Lucullus to raise a fleet from the remaining Roman allies in the eastern Mediterranean. His first objective was Piraeus, as without it Athens couldn't be re-supplied. Huge earthworks were raised, isolating Athens and its port from the land side. Sulla needed wood, so he cut down everything, including the sacred groves of Greece, up to 100 miles from Athens. When more money was needed he “borrowed” from temples and
Sybils alike. The currency minted from this treasure was to remain in circulation for centuries and prized for its quality.
Despite the complete encirclement of Athens and its port, and several attempts by Archelaus to raise the siege, a stalemate seemed to have developed. Sulla, however, patiently bided his time. Soon Sulla's camp was to fill with refugees from Rome, fleeing the massacres of Marius and Cinna. These also included his wife and children, as well as those of the
Optimate party who hadn't been killed.
Athens by now was starving, and grain was at famine levels in price. Inside the city, the population was reduced to eating shoe leather and grass. A delegation from Athens was sent to treat with Sulla, but instead of serious negotiations they expounded on the glory of their city. Sulla sent them away saying: “I was sent to Athens, not to take lessons, but to reduce rebels to obedience.”
His spies then informed him that Aristion was neglecting the Heptachalcum (part of the city wall). Sulla immediately sent sappers to undermine the wall. Nine hundred feet of wall was brought down between the Sacred and Piraeic gates on the southwest side of the city. A midnight sack of Athens began, and after the taunts of Aristion, Sulla wasn't in a mood to be magnanimous. Blood literally flowed in the streets, it was only after the entreaties of a couple of his Greek friends (Midias and Calliphon) and the pleas of the Roman Senators in his camp that Sulla decided enough was enough. He then concentrated his forces on the Port of Pireaus and Archelaus, seeing his hopeless situation, withdrew to the citadel and then abandoned the port to join up with his forces under the command of Taxiles. Sulla, as yet not having a fleet, was powerless to prevent Archelaus’ escape. Before leaving Athens, he burnt the port to the ground. Sulla then advanced into Boeotia to take on Archelaus's armies and remove them from Greece.
Battle of Chaeronea
Sulla lost no time in moving to intercept the Pontic army and moved to occupy a hill called Philoboetus that branched off Mount
Parnassus. It overlooked the
Elatean plain and had plentiful supplies of wood and water. The army of Archelaus, presently commanded by Taxiles, had to approach from the north and proceed along the valley towards
Chaeronea. Over 120,000 strong, it outnumbered Sulla's forces by at least 3 to 1. Archelaus was in favor of a policy of attrition with the Roman forces, but Taxiles had orders from Mithridates to attack at once. In the meantime, Sulla got his men digging. Next, Sulla occupied the ruined city of Parapotamii. It was impregnable and commanded the fords on the road to Chaeronea. He then made a move that looked to Archelaus like a retreat. He abandoned the fords and moved in behind an entrenched
palisade. Behind the palisade were the field artillery from the siege of Athens.
Archelaus advanced across the fords and tried to outflank Sulla’s men, only to be hurled back on the Mithridatic right wing, causing even more confusion. Archelaus’s chariots then charged the Roman center, only to be destroyed on the palisades. Next came the phalanxes: they too found the palisades impassable, added to the fact that they were receiving withering fire from the Roman field artillery. Then Archelaus flung his right wing at the Roman left; Sulla, seeing the danger of this maneuver, raced over from the Roman right wing to help. Sulla stabilized the situation, at which point Archelaus flung in more troops from his right flank. This destabilized the Pontic army, giving it a slew towards its right flank. Sulla dashed back to his own right wing and ordered the general advance. The legions, supported by cavalry, dashed forward and Archelaus’ army folded in on itself, like closing a pack of cards. The slaughter was terrible, and some reports estimate that only 10,000 men of Mithridates' original army survived. Chaeronea was one of the great battles of history: Sulla had defeated a vastly superior force in terms of numbers; it was also the first recorded time that battlefield entrenchments were used.
Battle of Orchomenos
The government of Rome (
for example, Cinna) then sent out
Lucius Valerius Flaccus with an army to relieve Sulla of command in the east. Flaccus had been given as second in command a certain
Gaius Flavius Fimbria, an individual that history records had few virtues. (He was to eventually agitate against his commanding officer and incite the troops to murder Flaccus). In the meantime, the two Roman armies camped next to each other; and Sulla, not for the first time, encouraged his soldiers to spread dissension among Flaccus’ army. Many deserted to Sulla before Flaccus packed up and moved on north to threaten Mithridates’ northern dominions. In the meantime, Sulla moved to intercept the new Pontic army. He chose the site of the battle to come —
Orchomenos, a town in
Boeotia.
Not only was it a natural place for a smaller army to meet a much larger one, due to its natural defenses, but it afforded Sulla the ideal terrain to expand on his innovative use of entrenchment. This time the Pontic army was in excess of 150,000, and it encamped itself in front of the busy Roman army, next to a large lake. It soon dawned on Archelaus what Sulla was up to. Sulla hadn't only been digging trenches but also dykes, and before long he'd the Pontic army in deep trouble. Desperate sallies by the Pontic forces were repulsed by the Romans and the dykes moved onward.
On the second day, Archelaus made a determined effort to escape Sulla’s web of dykes—the entire Pontic army was hurled at the Romans—but the Roman legionaries were pressed together so tightly that their short swords were like an impenetrable barrier, through which the enemy couldn't escape. The battle turned into a rout; and once again the slaughter was on an immense scale. Plutarch notes that two hundred years later, armor and weapons from the battle were still being found. The battle of Orchomenos was another of the world's decisive battles. It determined that the fate of Asia Minor lay with Rome and her successors for the next millennium.
Second March on Rome
Determined to regain control of Rome, Sulla returned to Italy. With the support of Metellus Pius and others, Sulla's armies marched up Italy from the port of
Brundisium. He chased the remnants of the Marians, led by
Gaius Marius the Younger, into Praeneste and bottled them up. Shortly afterwards, following a mad-dash march to Rome, Sulla's army defeated the Samnite forces of
Pontius Telesinus in November, 82 BC, at the
Battle of Colline Gate. The strength of the right wing, commanded by
Marcus Licinius Crassus, proved crucial in securing victory. Sulla also had the aid of the young
Pompey, who defeated Gnaeus Papirius Carbo's supporters in Sicily and Africa.
Dictator of Rome
At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC, Sulla was appointed
dictator,
rei publicae constituendae causa, by the Senate and subsequently ratified by the "Assembly of the People", with no limit on time in office. Sulla had total control of the city and empire of Rome, except for Spain (which Marius's general
Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). This unusual honour (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as the
Second Punic War, and only for 6 month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for
Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and the eventual end of the Republic under
Augustus.
In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a reign of terror, akin to and in response to, that which Marius and Cinna had implemented while they were in control during Sulla's absence.
Proscribing or outlawing every one of his political opponents, Sulla ordered some 1,500 Roman nobles (
for example, senators and
equites) executed, although it's estimated that as many as 9,000 people were killed. The bloodbath went on for several months. Romans were executed for any reason or none at all. Helping or sheltering a person who was proscribed was also punishable by death. The State confiscated the wealth of the outlawed and then auctioned it off, making Sulla and his supporters vastly rich. (One option commonly taken by those who had been proscribed was suicide, which under Roman law allowed their property to be inherited by their families, and not as spoils to Sulla.) The sons and grandsons of the proscribed were banned from future political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years.
The young Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, was one of Sulla's targets and fled the city. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life, because of the young man's notorious ambition. The historian
Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he'd become a danger to them in the future, saying "In this Caesar there are many a Marius."
Only
Quintus Sertorius, the last supporter of Marius, held out against Sulla's armies under
Metellus Pius in distant
Hispania.
Without any political obstacle, Sulla enacted a series of reforms to put control of the State firmly in the hands of the Senate. He arranged that the number of
senators be doubled from 300 to 600 and that membership was automatic on election to the office of
quaestor instead of at the discretion of the
censors. He also increased the number of quaestors from eight to twenty and the number of praetors from six to eight, ensuring the numbers in the Senate and giving them a larger base of experienced politicians to draw from. He regulated the courts and re-passed a law regulating the
cursus honorum, giving specific ages for each magistracy, and forbidding the repetition of any office within ten years. He also reduced the
tribunes' political power by restricting their veto and blocking them from further office, and limited the
Assembly's ability to pass laws without the Senate's approval. This was to ensure that no man who had real political ambition would run for the tribunate. Sulla remembered the tribunates of the Gracchi and how they'd caused upheaval throughout the Roman world with their radical policies. Now, only second-rate politicians would want to run for the office of tribune, securing the preeminence of the Senate.
Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, he expanded the "
Pomerium", the sacred boundary of Rome, untouched since the time of the kings. Many of Sulla's reforms looked to the past (often re-passing former laws), but he also regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of
maiestas (treason) laws.
Near the end of 81 BC, Sulla stunned Rome by resigning the dictatorship, he disbanded his legions and re-established normal consular government, he also stood for (with Metellus Pius) and was elected Consul for the following year, 80 BC. He dismissed his lictors and walked unguarded in the forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. In a manner that the historian
Suetonius thought arrogant, Caesar later ridiculed Sulla for resigning, stating "Sulla didn't know his political ABCs".
Retirement and death
After his second consulship, he withdrew to his country villa near
Puteoli. From this distance, he remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were involved (
for example, The Granius episode).
Sulla's goal now was to write his autobiography, the
Res Gestae, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. Unfortunately it's now largely lost, although fragments from it exist as quotations in later writers. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastic ulcer (symptomised by a sudden haemorrhage from his mouth followed by a fever from which he never recovered) caused by chronic alcohol abuse. His funeral at Rome was on a scale unmatched until that of
Augustus in AD 14.
Sulla's legacy
Even though Sulla's laws concerning qualification for admittance to the
Senate, reform of the legal system and regulations of governorships, among others, remained on Rome's statutes long into the Principate, some of his legislation was repealed less than a decade after his death. The
veto power of the
tribunes and their legislating authority were soon reinstated, ironically during the
consulships of
Pompey and
Crassus. However, Sulla's biggest failure was his inability to frame a settlement whereby the army remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. That he tried, shows he was well aware of the danger. He did pass laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces (laws that remained in effect well into the imperial period), however, they didn't prevent really determined generals such as Pompey and
Julius Caesar from using their armies for personal ambition or against the Senate. This highlighted the weakness of the Senate in the late republican period and its inability to control its most ambitious members.
Sulla is generally seen to have provided the example that led Caesar to cross the Rubicon, and also provided the inspiration for Caesar's eventual Dictatorship. Cicero comments that Pompey once said "If Sulla could, why can't I?". Sulla's example proved that it could be done, and therefore inspired others to attempt it; he's been seen as another step in the Republic's fall.
Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. His son
Faustus Cornelius Sulla issued denarii bearing his ancestors' name, as did another grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. Yet another grandson,
Faustus (II) Cornelius Sulla was
Tiberius' legate in Germany and Consul of AD 7, but was executed for attempting to assassinate
Augustus in AD 9. His great-grandson
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Faustus was a friend of
Germanicus and appointed consul by Augustus at age 30 .
Augustus's daughter
Julia was Sulla's great great granddaughter via her mother
Scribonia, daughter of Sulla's granddaughter Cornelia. The husband of the emperor
Claudius' daughter
Claudia Antonia was
Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (consul of 52), whose father had been consul in 31.
He is the subject of two Italian operas, both of which take considerable liberties with history and change his name to "Lucio Silla":
Lucio Silla by
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the little-known
Silla by
Georg Friederich Handel. In each he's portrayed as a bloody, womanizing, ruthless tyrant who eventually repents his ways and steps down from the throne of Rome.
The name "Sulla"
In older sources, his name may be found as
Sylla. This is a Hellenism, like
sylva for classical Latin
silva, reinforced by the fact that our two major sources,
Plutarch and
Appian, wrote in Greek, and call him Σύλλα.
Marriages and issue
- First wife, "Ilia" (probably actually "Julia". Possibly first-cousin once-removed of Gaius Julius Caesar)
- Cornelia, married first with Gnaeus Pompeius Rufus and later with Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus, mother of Pompeia, second wife of Julius Caesar
- Lucius Cornelius Sulla, died young
- Second wife, Aelia. Sulla divorced her due to sterility.
- Third wife, Cloelia.
- Fourth wife Caecilia Metella
- Fifth wife, Valeria
Chronology
around 138 BC – Born in Rome
107 BC – Quaestor to Gaius Marius
106 BC – End of Jugurthine War
104/103 BC – Legatus to Marius in Further Gaul
103 BC – Legatus to Quintus Lutatius Catulus in Further Gaul
101 BC – Defeats the Cimbrii in the battle of Vercellae
94 BC – Praetor urbanus
93 BC – Governor of Cilicia
91/88 BC – General in the Social War
88 BC –
- Holds the consulship (for the first time) with Quintus Pompeius Rufus as colleague
- Invades Rome and outlaws Caius Marius the elder
87 BC – Command of Roman armies to fight King Mithridates of Pontus
86 BC – Sack of Athens, Battle of Chaeronea
85 BC – Battle of Orchomenus
84 BC – Expulsion of Mithridates' forces from Western Asia Minor & reorganization of Asia province
83 BC – Returns to Italy and invades Rome for the second time
83-82 BC – War with the followers of Caius Marius the younger and Cinna
82/1 BC – Appointed "Dictator - rei publicae constituendae causa"
81 BC – Resigns the dictatorship before the end of the year
80 BC – Holds the consulship (for the second time) with Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius as colleague
79 BC – Retires completely from political life
78 BC – Dies of an intestinal ulcer. Funeral held in RomeFurther Information
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